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Hierarchical File System (HFS) is a proprietaryfile system developed by Apple Inc. for use in computer systems running Mac OS. Originally designed for use on floppy and hard disks, it can also be found on read-only media such as CD-ROMs. HFS is also referred to as Mac OS Standard (or 'HFS Standard'), while its successor, HFS Plus, is also called Mac OS Extended (or 'HFS Extended').

GarageBand is a fully equipped music creation studio right inside your Mac — with a complete sound library that includes instruments, presets for guitar and voice, and an incredible selection of session drummers and percussionists. It works seemlessly with the Mac OS too because both run in parallel. It does seem a sledge hammer to crack a nut just to run one free application DSS. I went this way because I have some old Windows only software like Photoshop and dreamweaver, plus of course my astronomy software Backyard EOS, EQMOD, PHD2 etc. ZS-MacOSX-T45.zip is the most common filename for this program's installer. ZereneStacker for Mac is included in System Tools. The latest setup package occupies 3.7 MB on disk. The actual developer of this software for Mac is Zerene Systems LLC. Our built-in antivirus checked this Mac download and rated it as virus free.

With the introduction of Mac OS X 10.6, Apple dropped support for formatting or writing HFS disks and images, which remain supported as read-only volumes.^[1] Starting with macOS 10.15, HFS disks can no longer be read.

History[edit]

Apple introduced HFS in September 1985, specifically to support Apple's first hard disk drive for the Macintosh, replacing the Macintosh File System (MFS), the original file system which had been introduced over a year and a half earlier with the first Macintosh computer. HFS drew heavily upon Apple's first hierarchical operating system (SOS) for the failed Apple III, which also served as the basis for hierarchical file systems on the Apple IIe and Apple Lisa. HFS was developed by Patrick Dirks and Bill Bruffey. It shared a number of design features with MFS that were not available in other file systems of the time (such as DOS's FAT). Files could have multiple forks (normally a data and a resource fork), which allowed the main data of the file to be stored separately from resources such as icons that might need to be localized. Files were referenced with unique file IDs rather than file names, and file names could be 255 characters long (although the Finder only supported a maximum of 31 characters).

However, MFS had been optimized to be used on very small and slow media, namely floppy disks, so HFS was introduced to overcome some of the performance problems that arrived with the introduction of larger media, notably hard drives. The main concern was the time needed to display the contents of a folder. Under MFS all of the file and directory listing information was stored in a single file, which the system had to search to build a list of the files stored in a particular folder. This worked well with a system with a few hundred kilobytes of storage and perhaps a hundred files, but as the systems grew into megabytes and thousands of files, the performance degraded rapidly.

The solution was to replace MFS's directory structure with one more suitable to larger file systems. HFS replaced the flat table structure with the Catalog File which uses a B-tree structure that could be searched very quickly regardless of size. HFS also redesigned various structures to be able to hold larger numbers, 16-bit integers being replaced by 32-bit almost universally. Oddly, one of the few places this 'upsizing' did not take place was the file directory itself, which limits HFS to a total of 65,535 files on each logical disk.

While HFS is a proprietary file system format, it is well-documented; there are usually solutions available to access HFS-formatted disks from most modern operating systems.

Apple introduced HFS out of necessity with its first 20 MB hard disk offering for the Macintosh in September 1985, where it was loaded into RAM from a MFS floppy disk on boot using a patch file ('Hard Disk 20'). However, HFS was not widely introduced until it was included in the 128K ROM that debuted with the Macintosh Plus in January 1986 along with the larger 800 KB floppy disk drive for the Macintosh that also used HFS. The introduction of HFS was the first advancement by Apple to leave a Macintosh computer model behind: the original 128K Macintosh, which lacked sufficient memory to load the HFS code and was promptly discontinued.

In 1998, Apple introduced HFS Plus to address inefficient allocation of disk space in HFS and to add other improvements. HFS is still supported by current versions of Mac OS, but starting with Mac OS X, an HFS volume cannot be used for booting, and beginning with Mac OS X 10.6 (Snow Leopard), HFS volumes are read-only and cannot be created or updated. In macOS Sierra (10.12), Apple's release notes state that 'The HFS Standard filesystem is no longer supported.'^[2] However, read-only HFS Standard support is still present in Sierra and works as it did in previous versions.

Design[edit]

A storage volume is inherently divided into logical blocks of 512 bytes. The Hierarchical File System groups these logical blocks into allocation blocks, which can contain one or more logical blocks, depending on the total size of the volume. HFS uses a 16-bit value to address allocation blocks, limiting the number of allocation blocks to 65,535 (2¹⁶-1).

Five structures make up an HFS volume:

1. Logical blocks 0 and 1 of the volume are the Boot Blocks, which contain system startup information. For example, the names of the System and Shell (usually the Finder) files which are loaded at startup.
2. Logical block 2 contains the Master Directory Block (aka MDB). This defines a wide variety of data about the volume itself, for example date & time stamps for when the volume was created, the location of the other volume structures such as the Volume Bitmap or the size of logical structures such as allocation blocks. There is also a duplicate of the MDB called the Alternate Master Directory Block (aka Alternate MDB) located at the opposite end of the volume in the second to last logical block. This is intended mainly for use by disk utilities and is only updated when either the Catalog File or Extents Overflow File grow in size.
3. Logical block 3 is the starting block of the Volume Bitmap, which keeps track of which allocation blocks are in use and which are free. Each allocation block on the volume is represented by a bit in the map: if the bit is set then the block is in use; if it is clear then the block is free to be used. Since the Volume Bitmap must have a bit to represent each allocation block, its size is determined by the size of the volume itself.
4. The Extent Overflow File is a B-tree that contains extra extents that record which allocation blocks are allocated to which files, once the initial three extents in the Catalog File are used up. Later versions also added the ability for the Extent Overflow File to store extents that record bad blocks, to prevent the file system from trying to allocate a bad block to a file.
5. The Catalog File is another B-tree that contains records for all the files and directories stored in the volume. It stores four types of records. Each file consists of a File Thread Record and a File Record while each directory consists of a Directory Thread Record and a Directory Record. Files and directories in the Catalog File are located by their unique Catalog Node ID (or CNID).
   • A File Thread Record stores just the name of the file and the CNID of its parent directory.
   • A File Record stores a variety of metadata about the file including its CNID, the size of the file, three timestamps (when the file was created, last modified, last backed up), the first file extents of the data and resource forks and pointers to the file's first data and resource extent records in the Extent Overflow File. The File Record also stores two 16 byte fields that are used by the Finder to store attributes about the file including things like its creator code, type code, the window the file should appear in and its location within the window.
   • A Directory Thread Record stores just the name of the directory and the CNID of its parent directory.
   • A Directory Record which stores data like the number of files stored within the directory, the CNID of the directory, three timestamps (when the directory was created, last modified, last backed up). Like the File Record, the Directory Record also stores two 16 byte fields for use by the Finder. These store things like the width & height and x & y co-ordinates for the window used to display the contents of the directory, the display mode (icon view, list view, etc.) of the window and the position of the window's scroll bar.

Limitations[edit]

The Catalog File, which stores all the file and directory records in a single data structure, results in performance problems when the system allows multitasking, as only one program can write to this structure at a time, meaning that many programs may be waiting in queue due to one program 'hogging' the system.^[3] It is also a serious reliability concern, as damage to this file can destroy the entire file system. This contrasts with other file systems that store file and directory records in separate structures (such as DOS's FAT file system or the Unix File System), where having structure distributed across the disk means that damaging a single directory is generally non-fatal and the data may possibly be re-constructed with data held in the non-damaged portions.

Additionally, the limit of 65,535 allocation blocks resulted in files having a 'minimum' size equivalent 1/65,535th the size of the disk. Thus, any given volume, no matter its size, could only store a maximum of 65,535 files. Moreover, any file would be allocated more space than it actually needed, up to the allocation block size. When disks were small, this was of little consequence, because the individual allocation block size was trivial, but as disks started to approach the 1 GB mark, the smallest amount of space that any file could occupy (a single allocation block) became excessively large, wasting significant amounts of disk space. For example, on a 1 GB disk, the allocation block size under HFS is 16 KB, so even a 1 byte file would take up 16 KB of disk space. This situation was less of a problem for users having large files (such as pictures, databases or audio) because these larger files wasted less space as a percentage of their file size. Users with many small files, on the other hand, could lose a copious amount of space due to large allocation block size. This made partitioning disks into smaller logical volumes very appealing for Mac users, because small documents stored on a smaller volume would take up much less space than if they resided on a large partition. The same problem existed in the FAT16 file system.

HFS saves the case of a file that is created or renamed but is case-insensitive in operation.

According to bombich.com, HFS is no longer supported on Catalina and future macOS releases.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Gagne, Ken (2009-08-31). 'Losing legacy data to Snow Leopard'. Computerworld. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
2. ^'What's New in macOS: macOS Sierra 10.12'. Apple. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
3. ^Giampaolo, Dominic (1999). Practical File System Design with the Be File System(PDF). Morgan Kaufmann. p. 37. ISBN1-55860-497-9. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2017-02-13. Retrieved 2006-07-13.

External links[edit]

• HFS specification from developer.apple.com
• The HFS Primer (PDF) from MWJ - dead link as of 27. May 2017
• Filesystems HOWTO: HFS - slightly out of date
• HFS File Structure Explained - early description of HFS
• DiskWarrior - Software to eliminate all damage to the HFS disk directory
• MacDrive - Software to read and write HFS/HFS Plus-formatted disks on Microsoft Windows
• hfsutils - open-source software to manipulate HFS on Unix, DOS, Windows, OS/2

• 1Siril, a free astronomical image processing software

Siril is meant to be Iris for Linux (sirI-L). It is an astronomical image processing tool, able to convert, pre-process images, help aligning them automatically or manually, stack them and enhance final images. In 2017, it also began to work on Mac OS X and Windows.

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• New website: siril.org. Please use it instead of this one for news and the new documentation and tutorials.
• Current version is 0.99.8.1. See the list of previous versions.
• Free online training and documentation (Web-based or PDF)
• Code source, bug reporting and roadmap is now on gitlab
• Scripts information and download and the list of commands

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Who should use Siril?

Siril is targeted to amateur astronomers having acquired images and wanting to process them in a semi-automatic way. It provides a more user-friendly interface than Iris' command line as well as more modern and powerful processing algorithms, but it is not yet as automated as DeepSkyStacker or Registax. It also provides a basic command line to access various processing functions.

Siril is now fully capable to pre-process and process deep sky images. One feature still missing for planetary images processing is image deformation, but it is still capable of registering and processing them in an elegant way. The new star detection registration is perfect for deep sky images, but there are also two automatic translation-only registrations, one more suited for planetary and bright nebula images, based on Fourier transform, and another more simple targeted at deep-sky images, based on PSF on a single reference star. Additionally, a manual alignment capability makes it also well fitted for amateur astronomers having feature-less or bad quality images that automatic tools fail to align properly.

Professional astronomers generally use 32-bit depth images, but Siril uses only 16-bit images internally (except temporary for stacking). Loading 32-bit images is supported but it will degrade them since they will be converted to 16-bit (version 1.0 will use at least 32-bit depth channels internally). It can still be useful if the intent is to produce public-friendly pictures.

And more generally, people who want to use free software on free operating systems to process images. Siril can even be used to extract previewed frames from many videos formats. For an overview, see some image processing results.

News

For latest news, see our new website: siril.org. For code updates, see our bug and feature tracking system.

We are looking for volunteer translators, for the software and for the documentation. No programming experience is required. See the translation instructions page for software translation. In any case, check the status of your language translation with cyril (at free-astro.org) if you want to help.

The software is now considered stable. If you find a bug and want to report it (please, do!), feel free to report it on the bug report page.

• March 2, 2021
  • Together with the new 0.99.8.1 release, we finally updated resources in English such as tutorials and an FAQ, avaiable on the new website siril.org.

• August 14, 2020
  • The new 0.99.4 version has been released. This version is a complete refactoring of the application.

• November 4, 2019
  • The new 0.9.12 version has been released. This version contains a lot of bug fixes and improvements.

• May 27, 2019
  • The new 0.9.11 version has been released. This version contains a new photometric color calibration tool, a lot of bug fixes and optimization.

• January 16, 2019
  • The new 0.9.10 version has been released, with bug fixes, and new astrometry tool feature.

• November 26, 2018
  • Insight has landed! But the Siril news here is that we migrated our source code and bug management system to gitlab! Please use this modern way of communicating with us about code and problems now. The address of the project is https://gitlab.com/free-astro/siril/ . It's been a long year for us with many unfinished business for the 1.0 version. In the meantime, we are preparing a 0.9.10 stability release for very soon.

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• June 7, 2018
  • The new 0.9.9 version has been released, with bug fixes, and new script feature.

• February 19, 2018
  • A patch of the 0.9.8 version has been released: 0.9.8.3.

• January 31, 2018
  • The new 0.9.8 version has been released, with bug fixes, improvements on lucky imaging and Windows integration.

• December 4, 2017
  • A new 0.9.8 version is progressing well and will particularly help people working on deep-sky lucky imaging.
  • We have also started working on features for the next major version of Siril, version 1.0. The first development, started at the beginning of the year, aims to greatly speed up the display of images and the rendering effects and this looks very promising. Other major developments will be the use of a better precision, floating point, internal image format that will give better results with some algorithms, the parallelisation of preprocessing and the creation of a high quality registration and stacking method for planetary images. It will still take a lot of time, but that will be a fully featured and fast version of Siril. Current 0.9.x versions are stable and already provide great results for deep-sky image processing.

• September 21, 2017
  • New release 0.9.7. Click here for past releases. Siril is now available on Windows as a beta version!

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• June 20, 2017
  • New release 0.9.6. Click here for past releases.

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• November 28, 2016
  • New release 0.9.5. Click here for past releases. Development of major improvements such as native 32 bit images and GEGL rendering has started.

• October 8, 2016
  • A new team member has given a huge effort to bring you a fantastic new multi-language documentation, both browsable and in PDF.

• August 17, 2016
  • New release 0.9.4. Click here for past releases.

• October 28, 2015
  • First stable version available: 0.9.0. Stability updates and minor improvements will occur in the dedicated 0.9 branch.

• June 10, 2015
  • New registration method available! It is now possible to register images with an automatic global star detection tool. The algorithm takes into account the translation and the rotation.

• April 13, 2015
  • We have been working hard on accelerating stacking algorithms on multi-core CPUs, giving SER a better support and we are also working on the two main lacks of Siril: taking into account rotation and multi-point in registration, for better deep-sky and planetary registrations. These works are in progress, and will take some weeks to complete.

Many improvements have been done over the previous unmaintained version. The command line has been reactivated in large proportions, see the list of currently available commands on the dedicated Commands page. New commands and features have been and are being developed. For a complete list of features, see the 0.9.7 page, the roadmap, or the list of features below.

Ideas for the future of Siril are stored in the issues tracking system and can be seen by version in the milestones page. The list of known bugs is mixed with it and the full list is available here. The complete changelog is available either in the list of closed bugs or in the code source commits. A summary is available in the news section above and in the page of each release, as well as in the ChangeLog file. If you want to contribute, you are welcome!

Start using Siril / Documentation

Siril's works internally with FITS images, unsigned 16-bit per pixel and per channel. Some other FITS formats are supported. All other image formats you want to process with Siril have to be converted using the Conversion tab, but some sequence files are converted on-the-fly: SER and film sequences supported by ffmpeg (which means nearly all films).

For pre-processing, Siril applies master offset/bias, dark and flat images to the current sequence. These master images thus have to be processed before processing the actual image sequence. Siril currently does not support processing multiple sequences at the same time, so each layer of the final image must be processed independently before assembling them into an RGB image.

A free online course for siril has been set-up and new content is added regularly. Most uses of Siril will be described here with short films and exercices that allow you to learn by yourself and make sure you understood on concrete examples.

A Web-based documentation or PDF format for offline viewing, contain illustrated instructions on how to use particular features of Siril, along with a few videos to illustrate or describe these capabilities.

List of Siril features

New features are being introduced quite regularly. Here is a list of main features:

• Native image format support
  • Unsigned 16-bit FITS files (other FITS are converted to this format on-the-fly)
  • SER files
  • AVI and many other film files, their support is being dropped in favour of SER.
• Image conversion (to the native FITS format only)
  • Supported input types: 8-bit and 16-bit BMP, TIFF, JPEG, PNG files, NetPBM binary images, RAW DSLR images.
• Pre-processing of images with multi-channel offset, dark and flat images
• Image registration; supported methods:
  • Global star alignment (rotation + translation)
  • Translation using DFT centred on an object, generally used for planetary images
  • Translation using PSF of a star, generally used for deep-sky images
  • Manual translation with two preview renderings of the current image with reference frame in transparency
• Registered sequence export
  • Supported export file formats: Siril FITS sequence, SER sequence, uncompressed AVI files, GIF up to 0.9.4, MP4 and WEBM web publishing video formats since 0.9.5
  • Optional cropping and resizing of the exported images
• Image stacking, with optional additive or multiplicative normalization
  • Summing
  • Median
  • Average with rejection (percentile, sigma, median, Winsorized and linear fit clipping)
  • Pixel minimum or maximum across images
• Enhancement and processing of final images
  • Lightness/contrast cursors on each layer, different scaling modes (linear, log, square root, squared, asinh, histogram equalisation), negative and false colour rendering and clipping
  • Background removal tool
  • Cosmetic correction tool
• A command line for various processing functions, only available from the GUI, see the list of available commands.
• A star finding algorithm with PSF information
• Image compositing tool, combining and aligning multiple layers (2 to 6) with custom colours into a resulting image, with luminance layer support
• Plotting various pieces of information about an image sequence (FWHM, star roundness, periodic error of the mount, amplitude, background level...)

Compilation and installation

See Siril installation page. It documents which binary packages you can get and how to build from source if needed, for multiple operating systems. Siril is a free software, licence is GPL3.

To install standalone binaries, please go to this page, choose the last version and download the binary corresponding to your OS.

Who is behind Siril?

Vincent is a computer scientist (PhD) and uses Siril as an amateur to process images from a Canon EOS, a QSI and a Basler camera on a 410mm telescope.

Cyril is a physicist (PhD), now IT engineer at CNRS, motivating new developments and providing high quality processing algorithms to Siril.

Laurent is a senior IT project manager and also uses Siril to process images from a Canon EOS and a ZWO camera on a 254mm telescope. He manages the formatting of the documentation, using Scenari technology and the Moodle online training.

François Meyer wrote the initial (up to v0.8) versions. Here are the legacy Sourceforge project and website.

See the AUTHORS file for the complete list of contributors.

If you like the software, please help us by contributing with the Donate button on the top right. Siril takes us a lot of time and we still have to pay for the servers.